Key Terms

• Geography: The study of Earth's physical and human systems and the relationships among them.
• Population Density: Figure calculated by dividing the population of a region by the region's area.
• Map: Representation of Earth's features drawn on a flat surface.
• Scale: Measurement on a map that represents an actual distance on Earth's surface.
Latitude: Distance north or south of the equator, measured in degrees.
Longitude: Distance east and west of the prime meridian, measured in degrees.
Continental Drift: Theory by German scientist Alfred Wegener stating that 300 million years ago all of Earth's land masses, which were in constant motion, collided to form one supercontinent Pangaea. About 200 million years ago Pangaea broke apart and the continents have drifted apart to their present locations. According to his theory, only continents drifted.
Plate Tectonics: The theory states that Earth's outer shell is made up of about 20 plates. It is likely that convection currents caused by the unequal distribution of heat within the Earth's core cause the plates to move.
• Pangaea: Supercontinent that included all Earth's land masses. It existed from 300 million years ago and began breaking up 200 million years ago.
• Convection Currents: Circular movement in a gas or liquid created by uneven heating.
• Erosion: Wearing away of Earth's surface followed by the movement to other locations of materials that have worn away.
• Geologic Time: History of Earth from its formation to the present. Earth's history may be divided into several major time periods, called eras:
  • Cenozoic era (66 million years ago to present)
  • Mesozoic era (245 million to 66 million years ago)
  • Paleozoic era (570 million to 245 million years ago)
  • Precambrian era (4.6 billion to 570 million years ago)
• Soil: Surface layer of Earth, composed of mineral and organic materials, air, and water.
• Humus: Dark, upper layer of soil made up of partially decayed plant material.
• Soil Profile: Different horizons (layers) in the soil and the rock layer (bedrock) below the soil. Each horizon has different physical, biological, and chemical characteristics.
Leaching: Removal of minerals from soil by water as it moves downward through the soil. Leaching occurs in wet climates. Leached soils can be much more productive in farming if natural or chemical fertilizers are used to replace leached nutrients.
Calcification: Process by which, in dry climates, water carrying dissolved minerals moves upward through the soil. At the surface, the water evaporates, leaving the minerals behind. The result is the creation of a thick topsoil layer that is rich in minerals. In very dry climates, however, the amount of mineral deposition can be so great that it forms a layer poisonous to plants.
• Capillary Action: Movement of water upward through small spaces, as in soil.
• Ecozone: A distinct ecological region determined on the basis of physical, biological, and human factors.
Immigrate: To move permanently to a country other than one's native country.
Emigrate: To leave your country of origin to live permanently in another country.
Demography: Study of population numbers, distribution, trends, and issues.
• Dependancy Load: Proportion of the population that is not in the workforce; total number of people under 14 and over 65.
• Economic Base: Economic activities that allow a community to exist. For example, a town might exist because a mineral resource in the area is being developed.
Aboriginal Peoples: Descendants of Canada's first inhabitants.
Assimilate: To lose your culture and adopt the culture of the larger group within which you live.
• Treaty: Written agreement between parties in dispute.
• First Nations: An Aboriginal group whose members wish to be treated as a distinct group on the basis of a shared common culture and history.
Specific Claim: First Nation's claim based on a belief that the government did not fulfill its obligations under a treaty or other agreement related to land, money, or other assets.
Comprehensive Claim: Claim available to First Nations who have never signed treaties in the past that deals with many issues, including land ownership, self-government, ownership and control of resources, hunting/fishing/trapping rights, and financial compensation.
• Settlement Pattern: Distribution of homes, farms, villages, towns, and cities in an area.
• Population Distribution: Pattern showing where people live in an area. For example, a scattered distribution along a coastline or road.
• Basic Industry: Industry that sells its products outside the community, bringing money into the community.
• Non-Basic Industry: Industry that sells its products within the community. It does not bring money into the community.
• Land Use: How urban, suburban, or rural land is and can be used (eg. parks, housing, industry, commercial, agriculture, etc.).

Chapter 1: An Overview

• Canada's Population: 36,250,000 (2016)
• World's Population: 7,400,000,000 (2016)
• Canada's Population Density: 3/km²
• GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita is the value of all goods and services produced in the country in a year. GDP divided by the country's population, the result is an indication of the average wealth per person.
  • Canada's GDP per capita: $38293.28 USD (2014)
• Canada: high immigration rate, high life expectancy, great amount of freshwater, low number of prisoners, highly educated, environmentally sustainnable method, high HDI (Human Development Index) → combines measures in three critical areas: health, education, and wealth.

Chapter 2: Maps: The Geographer's Basic Tools

• A map is a representation of Earth's features drawn on a flat surface.
• Six basic map features:
  • Title
  • Legend
  • Scale
  • Date of Publication
  • Direction
  • Border
• The scale of a map shows the relationship between the size of an object in real life and its size as drawn on the map.
  1. Fraction or ratio (eg. 1:50,000)
  2. Direct statement scale (eg. 1cm to 0.5km)
  3. Line scale (graphic)
• Small-Scale Maps show a small amount of detail in a large area. They are used to show more general information such as physical, political, or economic information. (1:200 000 or less)
• Large-Scale Maps show a large amount of detail in a small area. They are used for more detailed tasks, such as residential planning, military operations, and for hiking trails. (1:100 000 or more)
• Three main types of maps:
  • General-Purpose Maps contain many different types of information, relatively accurate (atlas maps, wall maps, road maps, etc.).
  • Thematic Maps are designed to show information on one particular topic or theme, tend to be easy to understand (TTC maps, mineral distribution map, etc.).
  • Topographic Maps use symbols to show a variety of features. Two important features are contour lines and grid systems. Useful for examining detailed characteristics of a small area.
• Map projections:
  • Equal Area: Correct relative size of countries avoiding major distortion.
  • Mercator: True compass bearings, but distorts distance and size of land.
  • Winkel Tripel: Balanced between size and shape.
• Geotechnology: GPS (Global Positioning System)
• Waypoint: A stored location in a GPS unit.
• Telematic Device: Combines GPS capabilities with the ability to transmit vehicle locations to a remote receiver.

Chapter 3: Locating Places on a Map

• Longitude and Latitude (See in key terms)
• Compass Points are such as north, southeast. The cardinal points of a compass are north, south, east, and west. The ordinal points are northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest.
• Compass Bearings are measured in degrees and are more accurate.
• Grid Rerence Systems:
  1. Alphanumeric Grid: Grid rows and columns labeled by letters and numbers.
  2. Latitude and Longitude: N and S longitude lines that intersect with E and W latitude lines divide the earth into a series of grid squares (usually black lines).

Chapter 11: Canada's Geologic History

• Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift (See in key terms):
  1. Jigsaw fit between South America and Africa.
  2. Fossils of plants and animals on both continents.
  3. Mountains similar in age and structure on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean—the Appalachians in eastern United States and Canada and the Caledonian Mountains in northern British Isles and Europe.
  4. Ice sheets covered parts of Africa, India, Australia, and South America about 250 million years ago—they were closer to the South Pole before.
• Making Mountains:
  • Collisions of Earth's plates form mountains.
  • They ride atop a subsurface area of molten rock whose extremes of temperatures and pressure cause convection currents.
  • The currents move the mantle which moves the plates.
  • When an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, the oceanic plate slides under the continental plate and causes the plate to buckle, forming mountains. Regions around the Pacific Ocean were created through this process.
• Folding and Faulting:
  • When pressure is being exerted towards each other, folding occurs, creating mountains.
  • When pressure is being exerted away from each other, faulting occurs. Escarpments are caused by single faulting, rift valleys are formed by double faulting.
• Land is built up through:
  • Volcanoes
  • Moving Plates
  • Deposition: by movement of wind and water
  • Magma and Lava
• Land is worn away (erodes) through:
  • Rain, Rivers, Oceans
  • Wind
  • Glaciers
• Erosion and Mountain Building change the physical landscape.
• Earth's geological history divided into:
  • Precambrian Era:
    • Earliest Era (4.6 billion to 570 million years ago)
    • Many cycles of building and wearing down (erosion).
    • Single/multi-celled organisms started to appear.
    • The foundation of Canada (Canadian Shield) was formed during this era.
  • Paleozoic Era:
    • Refers to "ancient life" (570 to 245 million years ago)
    • More mountain building, lots of erosion.
    • Erosion produced sediments which are small particles of rock which have been worn down.
    • Layers of sediments were compressed together to form sedimentary rocks, becoming the bedrock in every province.
    • Appalachians in Eastern Canada are formed.
    • Age of amphibians and fish.
  • Mesozoic Era:
    • Refers to "middle life" (245 to 66 million years ago)
    • Formation of Rocky Mountains begins.
    • Innuitian Mountains formed when Eastern Arctic "folded".
    • Age of reptiles.
  • Cenozoic Era:
    • Refers to "recent life" (66 million years ago to present)
    • Glaciers were the most significant force in shaping the land during this era and especially Canada.
      • They eroded and rounded the Canadian Shield and the Appalachians.
      • Once melted, they deposited the eroded material to create the lowlands surrounding the Canadian Shield.
    • Age of mammals

The Rock Cycle

Ice and Glaciers

• Ice is one of the hardest substances on earth.
• Glacier: Slow moving mass of ice.
• Ice Sheet: Large, thick mass of ice.
• Ice sheets have covered vast areas of many continents in the past, including much of North America.
• Ice Age (6000 to 10000 years ago)
  • Period of time when freezing temperatures created ice sheets across continents.
  • Temperatures were low enough to allow ice to accumulate in great amounts. Glaciers advanced (grew in size).
  • When temperatures were warmer, glaciers retreated (shrank in size).
• The movement of glaciers depend on climate and location
• 2 kinds of glaciers:
  1. Alpine Glaciers:
     • Move from high to low elevation due to gravity.
     • Carve the land, creating U-shaped valleys.
     • Exist in Western Cordillera and Arctic Islands (eg. Columbia Icefields: largest area of ice in Canada).
  2. Continental Glaciers:
     • Move under their own weight.
     • Weight of snow and ice itself cause ice to spread outward from zone of accumulation (usually located in the centre of the sheet).
     • Areas where there is a net loss of ice is known as the zone of ablation.
• Glaciers move faster at the surface due to less friction.
• Transformation of Land:
  • When glaciers move, they transform the land by eroding, shifting, carving, moving debris, etc.
  • Erode high points on the land (erosional transformation).
  • Fill in lower areas with deposits (depositional transformation).
• Erosional Features:
  • Striations: Grooves gouged out in the bedrock under the ice sheet by rocks frozen in ice.
  • Spillway: Deep valley created by large amounts of water flowing from a melting continental glacier, if there is less water it is a misfit stream (small stream).
• Depositional Features:
  • Till: Eroded material deposited directly by the ice of the glacier (mix of all material of all sizes).
  • Till Plain: Flat to gently hilly area created by deposition under a glacier.
  • Lake Plain: Fertile bottom of an ancient glacial lake now used for agriculture.
  • Moraine: Material deposited by a glacier that moves parallel with the glacier.
  • Drumlin: Egg-shaped hill with a steep side at the wide end and a gentle slope at the other. The glacier moved from the steeper to gentler slope.
  • Erratics: Rock picked up by ice, carried along and deposited many kilometres away. They are easily identifiable: composition is different from the bedrock of region in which it's deposited.
  • Esker: Long ridge of material deposited by a meltwater stream flowing beneath the glacier.
• Benefits of Glaciers:
  • Mined as a resource of ice (denser than ice cubes).
  • With pollution and industry and acid rain, they are no longer mined.

Chapter 12: Canada's Landform Connections

• What is a Region?
  • An area of the earth that has characteristics that makes it unique.
  • Can be divided in terms of:
    • Economic Uniqueness
    • Political Division
    • Urban-Centered
    • Cultural Characteristics
    • Physical Characteristics (Landforms)
    • Climate Regions
• Three ways to define a landform region:
  1. Surface Type or Topography
     • Natural features of the landscape (mountains, plains, valleys, plateaus, etc.).
  2. Rock Type
     • Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic.
  3. Geologic Age
     • Changes in regions of Canada formed during the four geologic eras.
• Factors to consider:
  • Underlying geology determines landform.
  • Glaciation also carves out the details on the surface of the earth.
• Glaciation Affects:
  • Drainage Patterns
  • Depth of Soil
  • Topography: flat land, hills, erratics, escarpment, glacial sediments, etc.
• Landform regions of Canada:
  • Canadian Shield:
    • Covers 50% of Canada
    • Rocky, Hilly, Vegetation
    • Igneous and Metamorphic Rock
    • Metallic Minerals (lead, gold, nickel, copper, zinc)
    • Mining Industry
    • Mineral Ore Smelting and Manufacturing
    • Thin Soil (no farming except in glacial affected areas, thick clay)
    • Recreation (lakes)
    • Hydroelectric Energy
  • Lowlands:
    • Heavily Forested, Urbanization
    • Interior Plains:
      • Gentle Hills
      • Sedimentary Rock
      • Coral Reefs: Oil and Gas
      • Mineral Deposits (potash, coal)
      • Rolling Dills
      • Deep Wider River Valleys (slopes gently downward from west to east)
      • Two Escarpments Seperate 3 Levels
      • Deep and Fertile Soil
    • Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands:
      • Sedimentary Rock
      • Several Escarpments (eg. Niagara)
      • Recreation: Niagara Falls
      • Flat Plains, Glacial Hills, Deep River Valleys
      • Well Suited to Agriculture: Excellent Soils and Warm Climates
      • Ideal for Transportation Routes, Development of Cities
      • 70% of Canada's Manufacturing Industries
    • Hudson's Bay Arctic Lowlands:
      • Swampy Forest
      • Sedimentary Rock (contains lignite, oil, and natural gas deposits)
      • Harsh Climate (does not permit farming—the ground remains frozen most of the year)
  • Highlands:
    • Appalachian Mountains:
      • High Mountains
      • Rounded Peaks
      • Oldest Highland Region in NA
      • Sedimentary Rocks: Rich in Coal
      • Volcaniv Activity: Igneous and Metamorphic, Iron and Zinc
      • Erosion Caused Rounded Peaks
      • Glaciation Created Wide Glacial Valleys
    • Innuitian Mountains:
      • Mostly Sedimentary Rock, Some Igneous and Metamorphic
      • Not as Much Erosion as Appalachians
      • No Vegetation: Extremely Cold
      • Very Remote: Costly Development
    • Western Cordillera:
      • Really High Mountains
      • Jagged Peaks
      • Great Height, Rugged Appearence: Young
      • Growth of Vancouver and Victoria Limited
      • Obstacle to Transportation
      • Lightly Populated
      • Recreation: Banff and Jasper (Tourist Spot)
      • Caused by Collision of NA and Pacific Plates

Chapter 13: Canada's Climate Connections

• Climate vs Weather
  • Climate: Long term patterns or trends which prevail in a region.
  • Weather: Day to day state of the atmosphere (temperature, moisture, precipitation, wind, pressure, etc) in an area.
• Climate conditions vary in Canada because:
  1. Canada is a very large country, it expands far from North to South, East to West.
  2. The varying elevations cause different climate conditions.
  3. Canada has both coastal and inland regions
  4. Wind and pressure systems move weather conditions from one area to another.
• Factors That Affect Climate:
  1. Latitude
  2. Ocean Currents
  3. Winds and Air Masses
  4. Elevation
  5. Releif (and Other Precipitation)
  6. Near Water
• Latitude
  • Canada's land extends from 41°N to 83°N.
  • At higher latitudes, the sun's energy is more spread out: cooler temperatures
  • Closer to the equator, the sun's energy is more concentrated: warmer temperatures
  • Distance from the equator is a key factor in whether a region is hot or cold.
  • As the latitude goes up, temperature goes down.
  • Earth's curvature causes the sun's energy to be less concentrated at the poles than near the equator.
• Ocean Currents
  • Temperature of an ocean current affects the temperature of the air that passes over it.
  • The air then tranfers these characteristics onto land
  • 5 Ocean Currents That Affect Canada:
    • North Pacific Current
    • Gulf Stream
    • California Current
    • North Atlantic Drift
    • Labrador Current
  • The air above where warm and cool currents meet (eg. Air above the area where the Labrador Current and the Gulf Stream meet) is often moist/damp and foggy. The warmer moist air rises, expands, cools on the cooler air, condenses, and precipitates, causing fog.
• Winds and Air Masses:
  • Air Mass:
    • Large volume of air.
    • Takes on the climate conditions (temperature and precipitation) where it is formed.
    • Transfers those conditions to places where it travels.
  • Wind:
    • Wind is created when air masses move.
    • Air moves when there is a difference in air pressure.
  • Air Pressure
    • Low Pressure:Areas where earth is hot and air above it is warmed, air rises and air pressure will be low.
    • High Pressure: In the atmosphere, air cools and starts to fall. Air pressure in this area is high.
    • Air moves from high to low pressure, causing wind.
  • Precipitation Characteristics:
    • Originating over water: Maritime(m) air mass with lots of moisture.
    • Originating over land: Continental(c) dry air mass.
  • Temperature Characteristics:
    • Formed near the tropics: Tropical(T) hot air.
    • Formed between 55°N and 66°N: Polar(P) cool air.
    • Formed over the Arctic: Arctic(A) very cold air.
  • Air mass over southern continental United States: cT = Continental Tropical = hot dry air.
  • Air mass over the Gulf of Mexico: mT = Maritime Tropical = warm moist air.
  • Differential heating of the Earth has created high and low pressure wind belts.
  • 3 main kinds of prevailing winds:
    • Polar Easterlies
    • Westerlies
    • Northeast Trades
  • Westerlies move across Canada
  • The Polar Front is the boundary between cold, dry polar air and warm, wet tropical air. High above the front is the polar front jet stream (a current of fast moving air). The front is responsible for most of Canada's precipitation
  • The winds and jet stream shift according to the seasons.
• Elevation
  • Atmospheric pressure decreases with higher altitude/elevation. Air at higher altitudes expand due to the lower air pressure.
  • When it expands, it cools. Eventually it reaches its dewpoint (the maximum amount of moisture the air mass can hold). Further cooling leads to condensation (water vapour to liquid water).
  • Air cools slower above condensation point because the act of condensation produces heat.
    • Below the condensation point, the rate of change is −1°C/100m.
    • Above the condensation point, the rate of change is −0.6°C/100m.
    • The temperature drops steadily with increase in elevation.
• Relief and Other Precipitation
  • Releif Precipitation
    • When moisture encounters barriers of high releif (eg. mountains), it rises.
    • Windward Slope:
      1. As moist air rises, it expands, cools and condenses.
      2. As water droplets grow, they form raindrops.
      3. When they become too heavy to stay suspended in air, they fall out of the sky as a form of precipitation.
    • Leeward Slope:
      • Cold air descends the leeward slope, contracts, and becomes warmer.
      • There is a decrease in condensation and clouds.
      • The leeward slope (rain shadow) has a drier climate than windward slope of barrier.
      • In Canada, Westerlies move warm moist air from the ocean to the coast mountains and the Western Cordillera.
    • Cyclonic Precipitation:
      • Also known as frontal precipitation, brings out extended periods of inclement weather.
      • In areas where warm and cold air masses collide, cyclonic precipitation could occur.
      • Lighter, warmer moist air is forced to rise above the colder, denser air.
      • It occurs along the polar front.
      • Counter clockwise cyclonic activity, moves from Western Canada to Eastern Canada.
    • Convectional Precipitation:
      • In many areas of Canada, this type of precipitation brings more summer rain than winter precipitation.
      • Violent, short-lived rain storms that usually occur in the afternoon or evenings of hot days.
        • Summer heat warms ground
        • Air warms, rises, expands, cools, condenses, precipitates
        • Updrafts and downdrafts create hail and strong winds
• Near Water
  • Maritime climate regions have smaller tempteratures ranges than continental climate regions because of the moderating effect.
  • Water cools down and warms up slower than land. Thus, large water bodies experience a lag in temperature change when the season changes.
    • Spring: water is still colder than temperature over land.
    • Fall: water is still warmer than temperature over land.
• Climate Graph Factors
  • Temperature Range
    • Continental: Greater than 25°C
    • Maritime: Less than 25°C
  • Total Precipitation
    • Continental: Lower than 1000mm
    • Maritime: Greater than 1000mm
  • Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation
    • Winter: Total from October to March
    • Summer: Total from April to September
    • Continental: Winter > Summer
    • Maritime: Summer > Winter

Chapter 14: Canada's Soil and Natural Vegetation Connections

• Soil
  • Consists of four main parts: minerals, bacteria and organic materials, air, and moisture.
  • Topsoil: Rich in organic materials, especially near the surface. Dark brown or black in colour.
  • Subsoil: Combined mineral and organic layer. Lighter brown in colour.
  • Parent Material: Mineral materials from which soil is made. Usually bedrock or glacial deposits.
  • Loam: A well-balanced mixture of sand, silt, clay, and humus.
  • Leaching and Calcification (See in key terms)
  • Because of the Western Cordillera's varied relief and climate patterns, a complex pattern of soils exists, and the characteristics of the soil can change completely over very short distances.
  • In contrast, the harsh climate of the tundra soils region makes soil formation difficult. The short, cool growing season limits plant growth and slows the breakdown of organic materials into humus. Because of the permafrost, the soil drains poorly and is often waterlogged. As a result, air may be missing from the soil's profile.
• Natural Vegetation Regions
  • Natural vegetation refers to those plants that grow without any human interference.
  • Tundra
    • Most northerly vegetation region of Canada.
    • Located above the tree line, which marks the northern boundary of most tree growth.
    • Most of the tundra has permafrost, or ground that has been frozen for over two years.
    • Only permits the growth of small shrubs, mosses, grasses and lichens.
    • The lack of vegetation limits the variety of wildlife as well as the population of each species.
  • Boreal and Taiga Forest
    • The largest vegetation region in Canada.
    • Coniferous trees—such as spruce, pines, hemlock, and cedar—grow in this vegetation region. They have characteristics that make them well-suited to cold temperatures and short growing seasons.
    • The lack of humus, combined with the high level of acidity and the leaching effect of water, makes these wet-climate soils infertile and unsuitable for agriculture.
    • The northern part of the region is the taiga forest and the southern part is the boreal forest. The taiga forest is less dense than the boreal forest, and has smaller trees that take much longer to grow.
  • Mixed Forest
    • The mixed forest is a transition zone between the boreal and taiga forest to the north and the deciduous forest to the south. Consists of deciduous and coniferous trees—such as maple, beech, ash, oak, and birch along with spruce, fir, pine, cedar, and hemlock.
    • Excellent resource for the lumbering industry.
    • Southern region has been cleared because of farming, lumbering, urban development, and transportation routes.
    • Soils in the mixed forest regions are well-suited to farming.
  • Deciduous Forest
    • Very small region. Most of this region has been cleared for farming and urban development.
    • Conditions are ideal for hardwood trees such as maple, beech, hickory, ash, and black walnut.
    • Soils are similar to those of the mixed forest. Most fertile soils of eastern Canada.
  • Grasslands
    • Located in the southern part of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta.
    • Climate is too dry for most species of trees to survive.
    • Drought-resistant short grasses, sagebrush, and cactus grow in the short-grass prairie, in southern Saskatchewan and Alberta.
    • The long-grass prairie contains the richest soil in Canada and some of the most productive grain-growing land in the world.
    • Parkland is a transition zone of long-grass prairie dotted with clumps of trees.
  • Cordilleran Vegetation
    • The variation of vegetation is a result of the wide range of temperatures, rainfall, soils, and elevations throughout the region.
    • Account for the large variety of natural vegetation.
  • West Coast Forest
    • The heavy rainfall plus the mild climate of the coastal region provide excellent growing conditions for the trees of this temperate rain forest.
    • Lush forests of Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, red cedar, and western hemlock grow in this region.
    • Trees more than a metre in diameter and over 50 metres high are common.

Chapter 15: Canada's Ecozones

Chapter 16: An Introduction to the Study of Population

• Population
  • Ecumene: Permanently occupied or settled areas of a country.
  • Immigration, Emmigration, and Demography (See in key terms).
  • Birth Rate: Yearly number of live births per 1000.
  • Death Rate: Yearly number of deaths per 1000.
  • Natural Increase Rate: The difference between the birth rate and death rate.
  • Infant Mortality Rate: Yearly number of deaths under one year old per 1000.
  • Child Mortality Rate: Yearly number of deaths under eight years old per 1000.
  • Refugee: A person who immigrates to another country out of fear of persecution in his or her own country.
  • Immigration Rate: Number of new Canadians who have immigrated here from another country per 1000 of Canada's population.
  • Emigration Rate: Yearly number of people who move elsewhere.
  • Net Migration Rate: The difference between people moving to a country and people moving elsewhere from that same country.
  • Push Factor: Something that makes people want to leave their country and move to another (famine, war, disease, discrimination, unemployment, etc.).
  • Pull Factor: Something that attracts people to another country (education opportunities, employment opportunities, freedom of speech, etc.).
  • Population Growth Rate: Measurement that combines both natural increase and net migration to calculate the overall growth of a country's population.
  • Life Expectancy: The average lifespan of a person.
  • Baby Boom: The large rise in the birth rate experienced by many countries in Europe and North America between 1946 and 1961.
  • Doubling Time: How long it would take for a country's population to double at that country's current rate of population growth.
  • Rule of 70: The calculation that determines the number of years it will take for a country's population to double. You take 70 and divide it by the population growth rate.
  • Population Pyramid: Graph that depicts population distribution by age and sex.
  • Population Density: Figure calculated by dividing the population of a region by that region's area.
  • Population Distribution: Pattern showing where people live in an area.
• Formulas:
  • Brith Rate−Death Rate = Natural Increase Rate
  • Immigration Rate−Emigration Rate = Net Migration Rate
  • Natural Growth Rate+Net Migration Rate = Population Growth Rate
  • Approximately 1070 births in Canada per day, 3600 in Russia, 600 in Togo (Africa)
  • Natural Increase Rate usually given in percentage.
• Age Roles:
  • Children (Under 15)
  • Working Adults (15–64)
  • Older Adults (65+)
• Dependancy Load: Population that does not work and must be supported (children + older adults)—Canada has a dependency load of 37% (24% children and 13% older adults), Niger has a 49% dependency load (47% children, and 2% older adults).
  • During the 1950s, Canada's population grew because many immigrants came into the country and people had big families (baby boom) after World War II.
  • In 1956, there were many kids ages 0–14, who are now aged 40–59 (increasing amount of older people).
  • In 1956 the focus was on building schools for the large amount of children, whereas now, these children are all grown up and the focus is on health care facilities and retirement centres.
• Stages of Population Change
  1. Combination of high birth rate and high death rate keeps the size of the population stable (no country in the world is at this stage now). Canada went through it in the 17th and 18th centuries.
  2. Death rate drops because of better healthcare and nutrition, and birth rate remains high which results in a long period of natural increase in the population. Canada's long period of natural increase began more than 150 years ago and continued to the 1960s. This stage began to take place in developing countries only in the last 50 years.
  3. A drop in the birth rate occurs because parents limit the size of their families since they are certain their children will all survive to adulthood, and most families live in cities and not farms, so they do not need many children to do chores. This stage has only just begun in developing countries.
  4. The birth rate declines to a point where it is close to the death rate which causes the population to level off. Canada is approaching this point but has not reached it while a few countries in Eastern Europe have reached this point.

Chapter 17: Canada's Aboriginal Population in the 21^st Century

• Aboriginal Peoples and Assimilation (See in key terms)
• First Nations (See in key terms)
  • The federal government divides the Aboriginal peoples into 3 groups: Indian, Inuit, and Métis.
  • Indians are divided into 2 groups: Status Indians (entitled to certain rights through treaties made with Canadian Government), and Non-Status Indians (aren't covered by any treaties).
  • The federal government is responsible for the status of the Inuit (Aboriginal people living in the Arctic region of Canada)
  • Métis are people of mixed Aboriginal and European descent
  • In the Constitution Act of 1982, the Métis were officially recognized as one of the Aboriginal peoples of Canada
• Treaties (See in key terms)
  • Address ways in which treaties have been/are being signed.
  • Impact that treaties have on Aboriginal peoples in Canada.
  • Many treaties have inadequacies—has led to many problems faced by many Aboriginal people today
    • Lack of adequate economic base
    • Poor levels of health
    • Variety of social problems
  • Treaties are usually written in English, and Aboriginals were not familiar with the language.
  • Aboriginals signed treaties because they wanted to maintain an economic base (retain access to enough land to support themselves by fishing and hunting) and they wanted the right to control their own affairs.
• Royal Proclamation of 1763
  • Gave British administrators direction for dealingg with First Nations.
    • First Nations should be respected.
    • A First Natoin should receive fair payment if its people chose to give up land.
  • Intention was to respect the rights of the Native people—negotiations were to be in spirit of mutual respect between equals.
• Royal Proclamation Not Followed (1780–1876)
  • British and Canadians treaties with Aboriginal People.
  • Gave small one-time payments such as clothing or blankets for land.
• Indian Act (1876)
  • Government signed treaties with Native groups.
  • Gave up their claims to land and moved to reserves.
  • Treaties failed to meet the needs of Aboriginal people.
    • Aboriginal people lost far too much land to maintain traditional ways of life.
    • The reserves weren't large or productive enough to provide a sound economic base (hunting, fishing, farming, resource development).
    • No right to govern themselves (decisions made by federal government on Aboriginal people's way of life).
• Effects on First Nations' Traditional Way of Life
  • Canada's increase in population
    • Interfered with First Nations lifestyle of hunting, fishing, and agriculture because of decrease in land.
    • Stopped the Aboriginal peoples from providing enough food for the population.
  • Move of the First Nations to reserves:
    • Rerves lacked fertile land, minerals, trees, fish, and wild animals.
    • In abuse of economic base—serious social and health problems developed.
    • Forced many to rely on welfare or move to cities searching for employment because it was hard to integrate with regular people.
    • Lack of education.
  • Aboriginal children sent to live in larger towns and learn in special schools (residential schools).
    • Taught language and culture of mainstream Canadian society (English).
    • Not allowed to speak own language or practice cultural traditions.
    • Loss of both—trapped between two cultures.
  • Government made laws protecting populations of wildlife.
    • Destroyed Aboriginal people's economic base and traditional culture.
  • Large resource development projects—such as Bennet Dam, BC—created without agreement of Aboriginal People.
    • Restricted their ability to trap, fish, hunt, and live a traditional lifestyle.
    • Unable to earn an adequate living.
• Comprehensive vs Specific Claims (See in key terms)
• Creation of Nunavut
  • Nunavut officially came into existance on April 1^st, 1999.

Chapter 18: Immigration: A Canadian Tradition

• Immigration History
  • Immigration is important in Canadian history—it contributed to growth and cultural makeup of the Canadian population.
    • 400 years of immigration: key factor to population growth.
    • Canada is a culturally diverse country.
  • Since 1876, number of immigrants vary each year (pg 214), periods of boom and bust.
• Reasons of Varying Immigration Rates:
  • Political (War, Change of Government)
  • Economic
  • Push/Pull Factors
  • Intervening Obstacles
  • Natural Factors (Internal/External)
• Multiculturalism
  • Canada's population is 97% immigrants or descendants of immigrants.
  • Immigrants encouraged to retain traditions and language while integrating into Canadian culture.
• Where in Canada do Immigrants Settle?
  • An uneven distribution of immigrants exists in Canada.
  • In 2001, 95% of immigrants lived in Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec, and Alberta.
  • Ontario (26.8%) and Alberta (26.1%) have a higher percentage of foreign born residents than the country's overall average (16.4%).
• Why Don't Many People Live in Nunavut?
  • Too Cold
  • Remote
  • Hard to Build Economic Base
  • Infertile Land
• Three Types of Immigrants to Canada:
  • Canada government can admit those who qualify for immigration into Canada, but look for those willing and able to contribute to Canada's economy and society.
  • Three Types:
    • Economic Immigrants + Family: Skilled workers or business immigrants to create jobs or invest.
    • Family Immigrants: Reunites families/close relatives—must have a relative to sponsor and support if needed.
    • Refugees: Fearing persecution/cruel or inhumane treatment or death due to race, religion, nationality, member of societal group, political opinion, etc.
• Interprovincial Migration
  • Movement of population between provinces.
  • In-Migration: Regions that gain migrants from other provinces.
  • Out-Migration: Regions that lose migrants to other provinces.
  • The governmetn paid people to move to the Prairies.
  • Many people moved west because a transcontinental railway was built.

Chapter 19: Rural Settlement Patterns

• Rural: Outside towns and cities.
• Population distribution refers to characteristics of settlement patterns.
  • Dispersed patterns are typical of areas with an agricultural base because people tend to live on farms that are spread out over the region.
  • Concentrated patterns exist when a population gathers around a resource, for example a gold mine will attract miners and their families.
  • Linear patterns are created when where the economic activities that support people have developed in a line, for example people living along highways in isolated areas.
• More than 90% of Canadians live within 600 kilometres of the border with the United States. The remaining 10% of Canadians are scattered throughout the rest of the country.
• Three key factors affect patterns of rural settlement:
  1. Resources found in that area.
  2. Transportation methods available at time of settlement.
  3. Role played by governing policy.
• Long Lots of Southern Quebec
  • Settlement took shape in many long and narrow farm lots stretching away from the river.
  • When all river lots had been settled in, a second row of long lots was settled along a road parallel to the river.
  • Taxes were based on the amount of river frontage.
• Concession System of Southern Quebec
  • Concession roads and sideroads ran perpendicular to each other, and were approximately two kilometers apart. Farms were unusually 40 to 80 hectares in size.
  • Settlement occurred on farms spread out along the concession roads and sideroads.
• Section System of Southern Quebec
  • The land was divided into blocks, each with an area of around 94 square kilometers. Each block was divided into 36 sections, and each section was then divided into four quarter-sections. Quarter-sections were about 64 hectares in size.
  • Pioneer families settled on farms that were spread out along roads bordering sections and quarter-sections.
• Comparing the three areas:
  • In southern Quebec, farmhouses on long lots are very close to their neighbours. People can rely on others nearby for companionship and help in emergencies. On the other hand, long narrow lots are not very efficient to work with.
  • Large consolidated farms on the Prairies are efficient to work with because they are very well-suited to the use of modern farm machinery. However, the people are spread far apart and it takes longer to drive to work, school, etc.
  • The farm on concessions in southern Ontario fall midway between those of southern Quebec and the Prairies with regard to efficiency and problems of isolation and long travel distances.
  • Scattered Settlements
    • Resource-Based Settlement
      • Presence of resource has been the cause of isolated rural settlement: The Atlantic Maritime, Boreal Shield, Boreal Plains, Montane Cordillera, and Pacific Maritime ecozones.
    • Section System of Southern Quebec
      • Scattered among major roads and highways to provide service to residents and travelers passing through, like gas stations, souvenir shops, motels, and small restaurants that cater to travelers on busy highways.

Chapter 20: Urban Settlement Patterns

• Urban: Towns or cities that have more than 1000 people.
• Hinterland: The area around a town or city that trades with it. Hinterlands have fewer services and less variety in economic activities than urban areas.
• Basic and Non-Basic Industries
  • Basic Industries
    • Industry that sells its products outside the community.
    • Brings money into the community.
  • Non-Basic Industries
    • Industry that sells its products within the community.
    • Recycles money within the community.
  • Jobs can be a combination of basic and non-basic.
  • Without basic jobs, no new money is coming into the community, so its economic base will be weak, and the community will not be able to sustain itself.
  • About three non-basic jobs owe their existence to one basic job. The hiring of 100 workers in a factory really means that a total of about 400 jobs has resulted—100 basic plus 300 non-basic. This concept is known as the multiplier effect. If 150 workers from a paper mill are laid off, 600 jobs will be lost: 150 basic plus 3×150 non-basic.
• Christaller's Central Place Theory
  • Walter Christaller created a theory as to why large cities or towns are located far apart, while small towns or villages are located relatively close together.
  • Christaller's theory is based on the idea that any good or service offered by a central place needs a minimum number of customers in the hinterland to stay in business. The minimum number of customers is known as a threshold population.
  • An urban place that provides high-order goods and services requires a large threshold population because they are expensive or are purchased infrequently. A hospital that provides specialized services, such as cancer treatment, is a high-order service that requires a very large threshold population to survive.
  • An urban place that provides low-order goods and services requires only a small threshold population to remain in business. A post office survives because it offers a service that is used by a small number of customers, but on a very frequent basis.
  • Other stores sell middle-order goods and services, such as clothing and shoes. Because we need these goods and services only from time to time, there are fewer customers shopping for them at any given time. For example, a sporting goods store might have a threshold population of several thousand families.
• Different Kinds of Urban Places
  • Manufacturing Cities: Sarnia, Ontario has a major role as an oil-based manufacturing center.
  • Transportation Hubs: The CN Rail permitted the shipment of grain and other raw materials from western Canada to Thunder Bay. Those raw materials are then loaded onto ships and are shipped to ports around the world.
  • Tourist City: Banff is a tourist city—it supports Canada's local economy as visitors bring “new” money into Banff.
  • Government Centers: Fredericton provides government services—religious, cultural, medical, and educational services—and supplies other services to local citizens and to the rest of the province.
  • Resource-Based Community: Flin Flon, Manitoba, is a typical resource-based community. Its natural resource is one of the richest copper-zinc deposits in Canada.
• Urbanization in Canada
  • Today, almost 80% of the population lives in cities and towns. Urbanization is characterized by an increase in population density and by a highly concentrated populated distribution pattern. The growth of services and manufacturing further contribute to urbanization.
  • Forestry and mining jobs have disappeared as the use of more efficient tools and machinery became prevalent. Unemployed people moved to cities, in turn, to search for a job.
  • At the same time, manufacturing and service industries in urban areas began to develop. This created new jobs that drew people from rural to urban areas.

Chapter 21: Urban Land Use

• Residential (40%): Includes all places where people live (houses, apartments, etc.).
• Transportation (32%): Used for the transportation of people and goods (highways, roads, parking lots, etc.).
• Institutaional and Public Buildings (10%): Contains people interacting to accomplish a general or specific purpose (hospitals, schools, offices, etc.).
• Open Space and Recreational (7%): May be previously developed land that are now vacant or land that has been left largely in a natural state (eg. parks, playgrounds, playing fields, golf courses, community centers, and arenas).
• Industrial (6%): Factories (processing and manufacturing), warehousing (storage), and shipping products.
• Commercial (5%): Places where you buy and sell goods in retail businesses, wholesale, financial establishments, and a wide variety of services broadly classified as business (local service centers, neighborhood plazas, community shopping malls, power centers, regional malls, the Central Business District, etc.).
• Residential density refers to the amount of housing units per hectare.
• Rural-Urban Fringe: Area adjacent to an urban area where there is a mixture of rural and urban land uses.
• Urban Sprawl: Low-density development surrounding a city.
• Smart Growth: Conservation policy intended to promote and manage growth of communities, sustain a strong economy in the region and promote a healthy natural environment. An example would be protecting the Oak Ridges Moraine.
• New urbanism is a new planning movement to combat urban and suburban sprawl. It includes
  • Building communities around people instead of cars.
  • An identifiable downtown center.
  • Narrow lots and smaller houses, higher density.
  • Mixed-income housing.
  • Homes designed to look like those built 50-100 years ago.
• Greenbelt: Undeveloped land protected from urban development surrounding a city. It contains farms, parks, and natural areas.

Chapter 22: Sectors of Canada's Economy

• Three primary types of industry: primary, secondary, tertiary.
  1. Primary Industries (Extraction)
     • Extract raw materials from natural environment.
     • Most resources found in very specific places.
     • Canada's main industries are fishing, agriculture, forestry, energy and mining.
     • Contribute greatly to Canada's wealth.
     • Only small percentage of Canada's workforce is in primary industries.
  2. Secondary Industries (Manufacturing)
     • Involved processing primary industrial raw materials into (semi) finished goods.
     • Manufacturers make fine products used by consumers and companies.
     • Secondary industries employ 4 times as many people as primary industries.
     • As raw materials are added, value increases.
     • Multi-Step Manufacturing
       • Manufacturing can involve more than one stage of processing.
       • The first step of this process is called primary manufacturing (things like making steel).
       • When an initial product is used to make another product, the process is called secondary manufacturing, and if that product is used, it is tertiary manufacturing, and so on.
       • Manufacturing industries can be located anywhere in the country, but usually situated near densely populated areas to be close to customers/keep shipping costs low.
  3. Tertiary Industries (Services)
     • A range of services that support primary industries, secondary industries, and society in general.
     • The majority of Canadians do not produce 'goods' at their jobs but rather provide services for others.
     • There are over 3 times as many people working in tertiary industries than in primary and secondary industries combined.
     • Service industries are found anywhere and anywhere across the country, but mainly in towns and cities because most services are provided for the people and manufacturers in urban areas.
  4. Quaternary Industries
     • Highly specialized (and usually expensive) knowledge-based workers.
     • Quaternary Worker: Person who works in an industry that involves intellectual services, such as writing software and architectural design. Other quaternary services include the high-tech industry, research and development, and information technology.
• Basic Industry Examples: Coal mMner, Actor, University Professor at Major University, Pilot
• Non-Basic Industry Examples: Hairdresser, Art Teacher, Receptionist at Dental Office

Chapter 23: Fishing: An Industry in Crisis

• Has been a popular activity for many centuries as fish in Canada were a renewable resource.
• Europeans came to fish off of Newfoundland since the early 1500's.
• Commercial fishing today makes up only 0.1% of Canada's economy, however it is the foundation of some inland areas, and parts of the Pacific and Atlantic coasts.
• Canada is one of the world's leading exporters of fish, some important markets are the US, Western Europe, and countries of the Pacific Rim, especially Japan.
• The Freshwater Fishery
  • Much less important to the Canadian economy than the east or west coast.
  • Inland fisheries located in the Great Lakes, Lake Winnipeg, Great Slave Lake and around 600 other smaller lakes.
  • Great Lakes have most important inland fishery.
  • In northern Canada, up to 90% of those in commercial fishing are Aboriginal people, as it provides income where jobs are scarce, and make up major and nutritious part of their diet.
  • Sport fishing is much more economically important here than commercial fishing, with billions of dollars spent on fishing gear and media.
• Production from the east coast is higher than the west coast.
• Different kinds of fish caught by Canadian fishers:
  • Groundfish (Bottom-Feeders)
  • Pelagic Fish (Open-Water Feeders)
  • Shellfish

1. East Coast Fishery
   • Atlantic Canada has a wide continental shelf less than 200 meters in depth. On this shelf are even shallower areas called banks that are less than 150 meters deep.
   • Sunlight reaches bottom, huge growth in plankton, attracts large numbers of fish.
   • The meeting of cool Labrador Current and warm Gulf Stream on the Grand Banks contributes to the rich natural environment. The current churn up nutrients at the bottom that are necessary for plankton growth.
   • The largest and best-known fishing region on east coast is the Grand Banks.
   • Two Distinct Types of Fisheries
     1. Inshore Fishery: Commercial fishing that takes place within a few km of the shoreline. Small fishing boats go out to sea and return to land every day.
     2. Offshore Fishery: Ocean fishery using boats longer than 25 meters. The boats stay at sea several days before returning to shore.
2. Crisis in the East Coast Fishery
   • In the 1980s, people noticed they were catching fewer and smaller fish, particularly northern cod off Newfoundland and southern Labrador.
   • An unexpected collapse occurred in 1991, and the Canadian government responded in 1992 by stopping all fishing of northern cod and making major cuts to catches allowed of other groundfish species.
   • When the groundfish ban was imposed, scientists, the government, and the fishing industry expected fish populations to recover in 5-7 years. Instead, cod stocks have remained at or below 1992 levels, and may never recover.
   • In response, the fishing industry diversified its catch. Fishers now catch larger quantities of other fish such as crab and shrimp, which are shellfish. However, critics say we are overfishing these stocks as well.
   • Sustained Yield Management: Conservation technique where, when in practice, fish can be harvested forever if the number of fish caught that year doesn't exceed the number of fish reaching maturity in that year.
   • Five Factors for the East Coast Fishery Collapsing
     1. Overfishing: Federal gov. allowed catch limit to be too high, government scientists may have over-estimated the number of fish that reached adulthood each year. Sustained yield management didn't occur.
     2. Improved Fishing Technology: Ocean fishery using boats longer than 25 meters. The boats stay at sea several days before returning to shore.
     3. Uncontrolled Foreign Fishing: By the late 1960s, fishing fleets of countries such as Russia and Japan caught too many fish to be sustainable. Countries with ocean coastlines urged the UN to extend national fishing limits, which was done in 1977. Canada was extended control of the sea to 370km from the shoreline. Foreign fishing fleets within this limit had to follow Canadian restrictions.
     4. Destructive Fishing Practices: Types of fish caught in nets that were unwanted (such as if a cod fishing boat caught a fish that wasn't a cod) called by-catch were thrown back in the waters, alive or dead. Only wanted fish were reported to officials as being caught, misleading the number of fish actually killed.
     5. Changes in Natural Conditions: Water temperatures have dropped, ocean salinity (saltiness) levels have changed since the mid-1980s, and fish may have altered migration routes. One idea is that the decline in the sealing industry led to a higher population of seals. Seals eat caplin, reducing the number of caplin, which are small fish groundfish feed off of. With less caplin there would be less groundfish, such as cod.
3. West Coast Fishery and its Collapse
   • The most important catch on the west coast is salmon.
   • The failure of the Atlantic fishery caused scientists to re-evaluate the west coast fishery. In 1994, 1 million fewer salmon than predicted came to spawning grounds in British Columbia.
   • Factors for the East Coast Fishery Collapsing
     1. Changes in Environment: Global warming is raising the temperature of the Pacific Ocean. Salmon prefer water below 7°C, and with the warming Pacific the salmon's range will shift north, eventually spawning in Alaska instead of British Columbia, causing Canada the loss of the salmon fishery.
     2. Lack of a Salmon Fishing Treaty: There is a long-standing dispute between the US (mostly Alaska) and Canada on where salmon may be caught and how much should be caught. Canada officials claim less salmon should be caught to preserve the stock, whereas Alaska says there is enough salmon, and no restrictions are needed. Canada and the US need to agree on how to balance fishing and conservation.
   • Challenges to the West Coast Fishery
     Supply of salmon is decreasing, yet demand is growing.
     1. First Nations: The Supreme Court decision in 1990 gave First Nations people the right to fish for their own food and for social and ceremonial purpose. This takes precedence over everything (including commercial fishing) except conservation. Also, a focus of many land claims in B.C. by Aboriginals is the right to fish commercially.
     2. Sport Fishing: The sport fishing industry wants a bigger share of available salmon, a salmon caught by a recreational angler yields greater economic benefit than salmon caught by a commercial fishing boat.
     3. Commercial Fishing: Commercial fishers will have to accommodate for growing demand from the First Nations and sport fishers. The federal government is gradually purchasing commercial fishing licenses and fishing boats to reduce the number of commercial fishers.

Chapter 24: The Business of Farming

• Agribusiness: farms and sometimes whole operations including growing, storing, processing and distributing food owned by a large corporation, family or an individual. It is used to refer to agriculture owned by large corporations.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Approach to agriculture production that can be maintained indefinitely without harming the environment.
• Agriculture depends on 4 natural systems:
  1. Climate
     • Two variables contribute to farming: heat and moisture.
     • Growing Degree Days (GDDs) are calculated by the number of degrees the average temperature of a given day exceeds 6°C. Daily GDDs for a whole year are added together to determine the amount of heat available in a location. They also help farmers know if there is enough heat to grow a particular crop.
     • Helps farmers know what stage in the plant's growth is best for applying fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides.
     • Growing Season: The days in which crops can ripen.
     • Frost-Free Period: The number of days between spring's last frost and autumn's first.
     • Evapotranspiration: Movement of water into the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and the transpiration from plants. Warm areas have more evapotranspiration than cooler places, therefore requiring more precipitation/irrigation for good plant growth.
  2. Soil
     • Composed of minerals, bacteria, and organic minerals, such as humus, air, and moisture.
     • Humus is decaying organic materials such as leaves, grass, twigs, and pinecones.
  3. Biology
     • Some organisms are highly beneficial to farming, such as earthworms—which improve movement of air through soil—and bees—who pollinate plants.
     • Some organisms are highly destructive to farming, such as weeds or insect pests.
  4. Topography
     • Level, well drained land ideal for farming.
     • Fertile valleys and deltas are highly productive.
     • Mountainous or hilly areas tend to lose topsoil from erosion, and are therefore less productive.
     • Flat, sandy areas with high water tables are too wet for farming, making them also less productive.
• Correcting Deficiencies
  • Canada has few areas with a perfect combo of rich soil, level land, good biological conditions, enough moisture, and a long growing season.
  • Developing varieties of crops that mature more quickly or starting seedling growth in a greenhouse for when growing seasons are too short or too cool.
  • Irrigation or growing methods that preserve moisture, or the development of crops that require less water for places with insufficient moisture.
  • Natural/chemical fertilizers or appropriate plant rotations for infertile soil.
  • Building terraces and using cropping practices to minimize erosion for hilly terrain.
  • Draining soils or planting crops that can handle or need excess water, such as paddy rice, for low-lying and wet terrain.
  • Introducing beneficial insects such as bees where there is a shortage.
  • Chemical insecticides, introducing predator insects, cropping methods that limit insects or making GMO insect-resistant crops, to combat an excess of harmful insects.
  • Chemical herbicides, manually removing weeds, cropping methods that minimize weeds or making GMO plants that work with herbicides, to combat an excess of weeds.
• Crop and animal production contribute to 1.4% of Canada's GDP.
• 20% of jobs are related to the agricultural economy sector.
• Canadians spent 25% of income on food in the 1950s, but today they only spend 11%.
• Land is a renewable resource because, if used properly, it can support new crops year after year.
• However the quantity of land is limited—there is only so much land available. Only 13% of Canada's land is suitable for agriculture, and said land is threatened by urban growth.
• Classes 1-6 are capable of agriculture, Class 7 land is incapable of farming.
• Increased automation brings increase in farm sizes, but decrease in number of farms and people needed to run them.
• Economic Factors of Farming:
  • Cost or Value of Land: If farmland is expensive, then the farmer will produce high-profit products to pay for land mortgage or higher land taxes that come with land of higher value.
  • Proximity to Market: Farmers are more likely to produce perishable products like eggs if close to their market, whereas farms further from markets will produce less perishable items, like grain.
  • Competition: When there's an oversupply of a product, prices drop and farm incomes take a hit. Farms will then grow a different product with higher demand and value.
• Intensive Farming: Population density is higher and land is more expensive, and there are small farms that require large investments in labour and machinery for high profits per hectare. Mostly perishable products are produced that must be quickly processed and transported to market.
• Extensive Farming: Population density is low and land is plentiful and inexpensive, there large farms that turn a profit even with low yield per hectare. They are highly automated with few workers—common in the prairies, interior southern BC, parts of Ontario and Quebec further from major cities. This type of farming includes cattle ranching, grains and oilseeds. Products are further from market and so are usually less perishable.
• Issues Canadian Farmers face Today:
  • Loss of Farmland: The best farmland is located near our largest cities, but land is being overtaken by urban growth.
  • Agribusiness > Family Farms: Family farms are declining in number as they are being bought up by large corporations, turning farming from a family businesses to an agribusiness.
  • Practices of Damaging Soil: Lack of sustainable agriculture.
  • Organic Farming: The production of crops and animals without chemical fertilizers, pesticides, radiation or GMOs.
  • BSE (Mad Cow Disease): halted the trade of Canadian beef to 34 countries, including the US after a single case was found in Alberta.
  • Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): When scientists transfer a gene from one organism to another to introduce a desirable characteristic.

Chapter 25: Forest Resources and Their Uses

• Key Terms
  • Sustained Yield Forest Management: Use of forest resources at a rate that allows the forests to renew themselves.
  • Softwood: Wood from coniferous trees (needle-leaved).
  • Hardwood: Wood from broad-leaved trees such as maple, oak, and elm. Hardwood is used to make furniture, sports equipment, tool handles, floors, and boats. Not all hardwoods are “hard”, for example, poplar and basswood are actually quite soft.
  • Commercial Forest: Part of a forest that has large enough trees and is close enough to a market to allow it to be harvested by the forest industry.
  • Non-Commercial Forest: Part of a forest that has trees too small to harvest or is too far away from the market.
  • Clear-Cutting: Logging method whereby all trees in an area are cut at one time.
  • Shelterwood Logging: Method of logging, often used in forests with trees of uniform age and size, that clear-cuts parts of the forest, leaving some seed-bearing trees to regenerate the logged area.
  • Selective Cutting: Lumbering technique in which only trees of a certain type, size, and quality are cut.
  • Acid PRecipitation: Rain, snow, or fog created after sulphur dioxide and nitric oxides mix with water vapour in the atmosphere. Acid precipitation kills vegetation and turns lakes acidic, causing fish to die and wildlife to disappear.
  • Stewardship: The management of resources in a careful and sustainable way.
• Forest Facts
  • Forests cover 42% of Canada.
  • Softwood forests make up 66% of Canada's forests.
  • Mixedwood makes up 22% of Canada's forests.
  • Hardwood makes up the remaining 12%.
• Characteristics of Forests
  • Commercial forests exist in the warmer, wetter areas of Canada where they can be harvested quickly.
  • They are easily accessible by road, railway, or waterway.
  • Non-commercial forests exist to the north where precipitation levels and temperatures are too low.
• Forest Regions
  • Boreal Forest
    • Includes the Boreal Shield, Boreal Plains, and Boreal Cordillera.
    • By far the largest forest region.
    • The region is mainly made up of coniferous trees, but there are some deciduous trees.
    • There is slow growth due to long winters and low precipitation.
    • Small trees are the most common, therefore pulp and paper production is more important that lumber production.
  • Taiga Forest
    • Includes the Taiga Shield, Taiga Plains, and Taiga Cordillera.
    • There are stunted trees due to thin soils, cool temperatures, short growing season, and areas of permafrost.
    • The region is mainly made up of coniferous trees, but there are some deciduous trees.
    • Most of it is inaccessible, so only small parts are logged, mainly for pulp and paper.
  • West Coast Forest
    • Only includes the Pacific Maritime.
    • It is the most productive forest in Canada, the volume of wood per hectare is the highest in Canada.
    • There are temperate coniferous rainforest on the western slope of the coastal mountains.
    • The abundant relief precipitation, moderate temperatures, and long growing season make large trees
    • The large trees are used for lumber, cedar shingles, and plywood.
  • Montane Forest Region
    • Only include the Montane Cordillera.
    • The volume of wood per hectare is second to West Coast Forest.
    • It has lower precipitation levels and shorter growing season than the West Coast Forest.
    • It has smaller coniferous trees.
    • Lumber, pulp and paper are made from logging.
  • Mixed Forest
    • Includes the Mixedwood Plains and Atlantic Maritime.
    • It has a longer growing season and more precipitation than the Boreal Forest.
    • In the north, fir and spruce are most prominent, while the south is a mix of coniferous and deciduous trees.
    • Conifers are harvested for lumber and pulp, hardwoods for lumber, and sugar maples provide most of Canada's maple syrup.
• Logging Operations
  • Clear-Cutting
    • Fastest and Cheapest
    • Most Commonly Used
    • Removes Every Tree, Leaves Barren Area
    • New Forest Grows in Uniform Shape
    • Makes it Easier to Log
    • Damages Land, Soil May Erode
  • Shelterwood Logging
    • Clear-Cuts Part of Forest
    • Leaves Groups of Seed-Bearing Trees, Regenerate Logged Area
    • Used in Forests with Uniform Age and Size
  • Selective Cutting
    • Harvests Only Mature Trees of Desired Size/Type/Quality
    • How Hardwoods Are Harvested
    • Very Costly, Extra Care and Time
    • No Uniform Replantation
• Manufacturing Operations
  • Pulp and Paper
    • Canada is the world's second largest producer of pulp and paper.
    • Pulp and paper plants are found in every province except PEI.
    • Most of it is concentrated in Ontario, Quebec, and BC.
  • Lumber
    • BC dominates the lumber industry, it's Canada's leading plywood producer.
    • Sawmills specialize in a particular market. They have been replaced by new, more efficient mills to reduce waste.
• Environmental Threats
  • Acid Precipitation kills trees.
  • Insect Pests and Diseases.
• Environment vs Corporate Views

  Issue	Corporate	Environmentalist
  Clear Cutting	Effect is similar to forest fire effect and the forest can regenerate.	This removes ground cover and causes erosion. Also, temperature changes may occur.
  Aerial Pesticides	This is effective and inexpensive, and have a low toxic effect on birds, fish, and mammals.	Aerial Pesticides endanger humans near the area, it has been linked to birth defects and cancer.
  Global Competition	We have a short growing season, so we must work even harder to stay competitive in a cost-effective way.	We need to be spending more money on preserving our forests instead of cutting them all down.

• Forest Fires
  • They are a natural part of the forest cycle.
  • Trees regenerate quickly.
  • 48% of the fires are caused by lightning, while 52% are caused by people in the nearby area.

Chapter 26: Canada's Mineral Wealth

• Minerals are pure, abiotic substances found in rock.
• Three main groups:
  • Metallic Minerals: Minerals that metals are extracted from like gold, silver, or platinum.
  • Fossil Fuels: Minerals that fuel can be extracted from, like coal, natural gas, oil and oil sands.
  • Industrial Minerals: Minerals that are not metallic or fossil fuels, like clay products, diamond, gravel, potash, salt, and sand.
• Canada is third in the world for mineral production.
• Canada leads the world for mineral exports.
• The mining industry has also contributed greatly to the development of Canada's transportation system.
• Mineral Reserves: Known quantity of minerals in a country or area.
• Canada's mining reserves decrease each day they are mined. Since it is critical to our economic future, Canada needs to continuously explore new mineral reserves. Finding new reserves is increasingly difficult, as mineral deposits are only found in certain parts of the world and most deposits have already been discovered. In addition, mineral exploration costs are very high.
• To keep costs low, geologists must narrow the search for minerals to areas where they think they have the best chance of finding them.
• Metallic minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Canadian Shield.
• Mining companies make risky decisions—companies either go out of business or produce a huge profit for workers.
• Ore: Rock that contains enough valuable minerals to make mining profitable.
• As many mining sites are located in very remote areas, the difficulty and costs of developing these mines are greatly increased.
• There are three mining methods:
  1. Strip Mining: Method of mining used to recover mineral deposits located very near the surface.
  2. Open Pit Mining: Method of mining using a large hole that is dug for the purpose of extracting ore found near Earth's surface.
  3. Underground Mining: Method of mining used to recover deep mineral deposits.
• Milling: Processing ore into concentrates. Milling separates some of the waste rock from the ore by crushing, separating, filtering, and drying raw ore.
• Smelting: Process whereby metals are removed from ore or concentrate for use in industry.
• Slag: Impurities that are separated from molten metal and removed during smelting. When slag is cooled, it has many uses such as fertilizer, as ballast for railway trucks, and in cement.
• Taillings:Waste materials left over from processing ore. It is often treated with chemicals and fertilizers to encourage the growth of trees and grasses.
• Canada's mining industry produces pollutants that cause acid precipitation. Abandoned mines are still a source of pollution. Canada's mining industry can be affected by other country's economy, especially by our key customers. Many high-quality reserves are being depleted. Many new mineral deposits are constantly being discovered in developing countries. Because of their cheaper labour costs, they are able to sell their mineral products more cheaply than Canadian companies. Canada thus has more foreign competition. Mining towns are completely dependent upon their mines. When a mine closes, a town may not survive.

Chapter 27: Energy Powering Our Nation

• Most energy is used in transportation and industry.
• Energy is generated from conventional (hydro, nuclear, fossil fuels) and alternative (solar, wind, biomass) sources.
• Fossil fuels and electricity make up 98% of Canada's energy uses (energy is relatively cheap in Canada).
• Most of Canada's coal is found in the Prairies (formed 300,000,000 years ago).
• The industry contributes $4,500,000 million to the GDP and accounts for 55,000 jobs.
• 3 types of coal in order of quality (Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite).
• Oil and gas were formed from compacted remains of sea animals hundreds of million years ago.
• Found within layers of porous rocks and recovered using flowing or non-flowing wells.
• Flowing Well: Used when there is enough pressure on the deposit to force the resource to the surface, controlled by a “Christmas Tree” (special series of valves).
• Non-Flowing Well: Used when there isn't enough pressure, and when the oil must be pumped out of the ground.
• Most oil and gas is found in Alberta.
• It is hard to identify the structures in which oil and gas are found because there is no guarantee that it will contain fossil fuels.
• Geologists conduct seismic surveys, look for rocks with traces of oil on the top, and look for evidence of fossil fuels.
• Issues with Oil Deposits: The more oil extracted from a deposit, the harder it is to extract, and after the oil has been extracted, there is another entire process to go through for retrieving maximum amount (called Secondary Extraction).
• Even after secondary extraction, the maximum amount of oil companies have been able to extract is 60% of the oil reserve (even a 5% increase in the amount extracted, could be worth more than finding another deposit).
• Electricity is produced by generators (all generators work by converting mechanical energy into electrical energy).
• Large-scale generators use turbines to generate electricity (hydro-electric, thermal-electric, and nuclear-electric).
• A complex power grid is used to supply energy all over Canada (it is also moved back and forth with the US).
• Hydroelectricity generators are built on large rivers (use the force of water moving from higher to lower elevation). They are not expensive to operate, but they are expensive to build and transport, and it is very eco-friendly (no fossil fuels!), but it may damage habitats.
• Thermal electricity generates power by burning fuel to evaporate water. The generators can be built anywhere and are cheaper to build than hydro-electric generators, but they are not eco-friendly (fossil fuels).
• Nuclear Electricity uses fission to heat water, and has a low cost of operation and energy transportation. Nuclear electricity generators do not use greenhouse gases but nuclear waste is dangerous, Canada has a lot of uranium.
• Energy accounts for 6% of Canada's GDP (2003), employs 230 000 people, and takes up 16% of Canada's investment. It has also been an important part of foreign trade since 1969 as 90% of energy exports go to the US.

Chapter 28: Location Factors and Manufacturing

• Proximity of Raw Materials
  • Companies that deal with perishable foods, such as fruits and vegetables that must be processed quickly after being harvested, locate in areas where those crops are grown. And example would be McCain Foods, who are located in major potato growing areas.
  • Factories that use bulky, heavy raw materials to make finished products that are relatively smaller and lighter also locate near the source of their raw materials.
• Locations of Markets
  • Market: Customers of a company.
  • Locating close to the market keeps delivery costs low, and delivery times short, giving a company an advantage over competitors that are not located near their markets. Proximity is an important consideration in the oil industry, especially in an emergency when customers need a critical part right away.
• Availability of Fresh Water and Power
  • Steel makers, oil refineries, and many other manufacturers use vast amounts of fresh water for cooling and cleaning purposes.
  • Another basic need of manufacturing is a supply of inexpensive power. The availability of cheap hydroelectricity can play an important role in determining the location of factories. An example is Alcan Inc., which has has built smelters in the Saguenay River Valley in Quebec because the Saguenay and its tributaries are tremendous sources of hydroelectric power.
• Labour Supply
  • Labour Supply: Availability of workers or labour force (total number of people working and looking for work in an area).
  • Canadian companies need workers with high-level technological skills. Such manufacturers tend to locate in parts of the country that have universities, colleges and apprentice programs that produce the skilled workers they need. An example is RIM, which is located near the University of Waterloo.
• Transportation
  • Most manufacturers need access to fast and efficient transportation.
  • Some companies are located to receive easy access to ships, international airports or seaports, while others need access to railroads or national and international highways.
  • Dow Chemical Canada Inc. is located in Sarnia because of the fast and efficient transportation of its raw material through this pipeline.
• Political Factors
  • Federal, provincial, and municipal governments often make political decisions that improve the business climate and attract new companies.
  • Highway 407 was built as an alternative route to the congested Highway 401. Many manufacturers are drawn as they can transport their raw materials and finished products efficiently and auto-parts companies are attracted as they are confident that their deliveries can be made when required.
  • Toyota Canada Inc. was offered subsidies and incentives to locate in Canadian cities such as Cambridge and Woodstock, Ontario. Because of this, the employment rate has risen and this builds on Canada's economy.
• Circumstance
  • In manufacturing, particular influences on the location of factories that are more general and difficult to measure.
• Canada’s auto industry has become a successful industry because all seven location factors had contributed.

Chapter 29: Services

• Involves tertiary and quaternary workers.
• Development
  • Number of Canadians employed in services has grown tremendously.
  • In the 1900s, machinery used for farming, mining, forestry, and manufacturing reduced the need for workers.
  • The growth of Canada's economy means that people have more money for leisure, which means a greater demand for services.
  • Better education helps people learn specialized skills to provide services to others.
• Major Categories of Services
  • Wholesale and Retail Trade
    • Wholesale: Selling goods to businesses and stores, not to the public. It is mostly basic.
    • Retail: selling goods directly to the public. It is mostly non-basic.
    • Examples: Warehouse worker, merchant, telemarketer, sales rep, cashier.
  • Healthcare and Social Services
    • Healthcare: Dental, medical care, medical research. It is mostly non-basic, but specialized healthcare is basic.
    • Social Services: daycare centers, shelters, lunch programs. It is mostly non-basic.
  • Business and Professional Services
    • Fastest growing employment area.
    • Includes things like accountant, lawyer, and executive.
    • Many are local so they are considered non-basic.
    • Some are basic, like a lawyer for international trade issues.
  • Education Services
    • Includes schools, post-secondary education, and vocational training.
    • Elementary and secondary schools are non-basic, but universities and college are a mix of basic and non-basic.
  • Accommodation and Food Services
    • This service is a rapidly growing part of the economy as people travel more and eat away from home more.
    • It can be basic or non-basic. Tim Hortons in the middle of a town is non-basic, but a Tim Hortons on the highway will be basic.
  • Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate
    • Services include banks, stock exchange, trust companies, credit unions, real estate, and insurance companies.
    • It can be basic or non-basic. The head office of a major bank is basic, but a local bank branch is non-basic.
  • Government Species
    • Federal: Postal service, defense, Aboriginal affairs: basic.
    • Provincial: Health and social services, education, natural resources: basic.
    • Municipal: Police and fire, water and sewage, parks and recreation: non-basic.
  • Transportation and Warehousing
    • The movement of goods and people.
    • Services include truck driver, bus driver, railway engineer, and parking lot attendant.
    • It can be basic or non-basic: a shipping clerk would be basic, but school bus driver would be non-basic
  • Information, Culture, and Recreation
    • It is growing rapidly.
    • Includes things like piano teachers, web designers, and actors.
    • It can be basic or non-basic. A piano teacher is basic, but actor is non-basic.
• Future Trends
  • Lots of new entrepreneurs appearing.
  • Online shopping can eliminate retail jobs.
  • Automated checkouts can eliminate cashier jobs.
  • Voicemail and personal computers have reduced secretary jobs.
  • Internet and telephone banking as well as ATMs have reduced the need for bank tellers.
  • Communication tech is reducing the need for companies to be near their customers.

Chapter 30: Transportation

• Movement of People
  • Road Travel
    • Automobile
      • Canadians travel mostly by car and light truck, 17.8 million registered vehicles in Canada.
      • These vehicles allow people to travel directly from their starting point to their desired destination on their own schedule, in comfort and privacy.
      • However, they are expensive to buy, insure, and maintain. They use large quantities of petroleum, a non-renewable resource, and produce gases that pollute the air and contribute to global warming.
    • Bus
      • The bus is a major traveling mode between cities.
      • Intercity buses go between cities, intracity buses are only within a specific town or city.
      • They are relatively inexpensive and comfortable, and bus routes and schedules can be quickly changed to meet new needs.
      • Both intracity and intercity buses of all of Canada carry about 1 billion passengers yearly.
      • They are more green compared to cars, and in comparison they help reduce traffic, noise and air pollution.
  • Rail Travel
    • It was the most common travel method in Canada in the first half of the 1900s as it was faster, more reliable and more comfortable than road or water.
    • In the second half of the 1900s, train travel declined because:
      • Intercity highways had improved, and cars were getting cheaper to buy and own.
      • Rail cars were getting old but weren’t replaced because they were expensive.
      • Freight trains—carrying cargo, not people—were more profitable for rail companies.
      • Also, travel by airplane became more common and less expensive.
      • Automobiles took over short-distance travel, while airplanes took over long-distance travel.
    • Currently, passenger rail service will have to be improved, which would be very costly, or will it become irrelevant until it disappears.
    • A more modernized rail system would be beneficial, traveling from Toronto to Montreal could take less than 2 hours.
    • Commuter rail in large cities such as Toronto or Montreal could move commuters to and from work, only big part of Canada’s rail system.
  • Air Travel
    • Bankruptcy Protection: Legal action allowing companies and individuals time to reorganize operations and stops creditors from taking action against them.
    • Having a large country and relative wealth makes a lot of Canadians frequent air travelers.
    • In 2003, Air Canada went into bankruptcy protection.
    • Before the 1990s, the air industry was regulated by the government, which decided costs and routes each airline could fly.
    • Rules changed with deregulation and airlines controlled their own routes and prices.
    • Deregulation is good for major cities where competition drives prices down and offers a wide variety of flights, but bad for smaller communities who are limited to only Air Canada and have no competition to lower prices.
    • Increased security makes air travel less comfortable and convenient, and crude oil is expensive.
    • Canada has 330 certified airports, and 26 of those handle over 200 000 passengers yearly. Major airports are transportation hubs, major centers for international and domestic travel.
  • Travel by Ship
    • Uncommon in Canada, but it is important where it is used.
    • Ferries carry people across lakes and rivers in Ontario and BC, and across the St. Lawrence River in Quebec.
    • Boats carry people to Newfoundland, Vancouver Island, PEI and smaller islands on the east and west coasts.
    • The boats are costly to operate and often stop due to weather, mechanical or labour problems.
    • To decrease traffic congestion at ferry terminals, the government completed the Confederation Bridge between PEI and New Brunswick in 1997.
• Movement of Goods
  • Cargo by Rail
    • Trains good at moving large quantities very quickly, especially bulk cargo like coal, grain, wood and oil, which have high volume and low value.
    • A unit train carries only one type of cargo directly from source to destination, with its cars being identical and designed to carry a particular type of cargo. They can move goods very cheaply and are designed to load and unload quickly, making them relatively inexpensive to operate.
    • Important Train Routes:
      • Labrador Interior to St. Lawrence River Ports (Iron Ore)
      • Rocky Mountains to Vancouver (Coal)
      • Prairies to Vancouver and Thunder Bay (Wheat)
      • Saskatchewan to Vancouver (Potash).
    • In the 1950s, railways began facing competition from trucks, which are not restricted to fixed routes, increasing flexibility. Delays and handling costs also reduced because truck cargo never has to be transferred from different types of transportation.
    • Piggyback System:
      1. Trailer Loaded at Factory
      2. Truck Pulls Trailer to Nearby Rail Yard
      3. Trailer Loaded onto Flatcar of Train
      4. Train Transports Trailer to Rail Yard Near Final Destination
      5. Trailer Unloaded from Flatcar, Moved by Truck to Final Destination
    • Containers:
      • Are a flexible solution—they are large metal boxes of standard size and shape that can be moved by truck, rail, ship, and plane.
      • Can be transported by any combination of transport, can be moved quickly and efficiently, and makes theft and damage less likely.
      • Are usually 2.3m wide and tall and 12.9m long.
  • Cargo by Road
    • Advantages:
      • Trucks cost less to buy and maintain than railway cars and engines.
      • Truck terminals are less expensive than train terminals.
      • Trucks are not restricted to fixed routes.
      • Trucks are better suited to carrying lighter, less bulky cargo.
    • A growing network of high-speed highways allows goods to be moved quickly and dependably.
    • Large heavy trucks damage roads, resulting in costly repairs.
    • Truck traffic leads to air pollution and congestion.
    • There are frequent highway accidents from mechanical failure and driver fatigue.
    • Winter ice roads are used by trucks to being fuel, groceries, machinery and building products to remote communities and mining operations, which is less costly than air.
  • Cargo by Ship
    • Ships have moved cargo for over 400 years, 150 years ago ships were the most important transport form as travel by land was slow and unreliable.
    • The boats are best suited for bulky low-value cargo like grain, iron ore, coal, crude oil, fuel oil, diesel fuel, lumber, cement, sand, and gravel.
    • Four Coasts
      • West Coast
        • Contains Canada's busiest port, Vancouver.
        • A lot of Canada’s lumber, coal, potash, and wheat goes to Pacific Rim countries.
      • East Coast
        • Ports such as Halifax, Saint John, Montreal are entry points for various cargo.
        • There is more container freight and less bulk cargo than the west coast.
      • St. Lawrence Seaway
        • The system of canals and lock linking St. Lawrence River to the Great Lakes allows ships to travel 3800km inland from Atlantic Ocean to Lake Superior.
        • It is a vital route for movement of bulk cargo between Great Lakes.
      • Far North
        • There are great distances and harsh climate, so land transport is unavailable.
        • It is expensive to ship freight by air, so freight is shipped by water when possible.
        • Ships on the Arctic Ocean and Mackenzie River move bulky cargo like oil products, building materials, and machinery in the summer, and they also transport groceries year-round.
        • The shipping season can be only several weeks long, so residents must plan to avoid running out of supplies.
  • Cargo by Air
    • This method is more expensive than other methods, and amount of freight moved by air is small in comparison to rail, road, and ship.
    • Cargo can be moved very quickly, it can be delivered the next day.
    • Goods Shipped by Air:
      • Lightweight and Small (Jewelery)
      • High Value (Electronics)
      • Perishable (Flowers)
      • Required Immediately
    • Float planes can fly to areas with lakes and rivers.
  • Cargo by Pipeline
    • They are buried and out of sight, but they are crucial in Canada when moving crude oil and natural gases.
    • Are Only Built When:
      • Supply is large enough to last many years, as pipelines are costly to build and are only worthwhile if they will be used for a long time.
      • Supply cannot be transported by ship, which is less expensive than pipeline.

Chapter 31: Communications

• Global Village: The idea that the world is becoming like one large village due to communication advances.
• Communications is the transfer of information from one place to another.
• Written language revolutionized communications, enabling people to transfer and store information that could be read in a different place and time.
• The telegraph was invented in the mid-1800s.
• The wireless radio was invented in the early 1900s.
• Following that was television, satellite communications and the internet.
• Communications technology decreases the relevance of distance socially.
• Long-distance calls to the US or Canada start with a +1.
• The SETI (Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence) Project
  • The Pioneer 10 spacecraft holds the record for the most distant human communication yet.
  • The last message to Earth was received January 2003, over 31 years after its launch, when it was more than 121 billion km from Earth.
• Existing Communications Technologies
  • Talking to one another.
  • Listening to the radio (more than 99% of Canadian households and almost every car and truck have a radio).
  • Watching TV (more than 98% of Canadian households have television, and over 75% have cable or satellite service.
  • Using the telephone (as of April 2005, there were 195 fixed telephone lines and 15 million mobile phone subscribers in Canada).
  • Sending e-mails and looking at websites.
  • Snail mail.
  • Reading magazines or newspapers (Canada has over 100 daily newspapers and more than 1500 magazines, some for hundred of thousands of people, others for fewer readers with specific interests).
• Communication consists of two parts: the message itself and the technology that delivers the message.
• Developments in the Telephone System
  • For a century after their creation, telephones were connected by landlines, until the 1980s when wireless phone service became available.
• Developments in the Internet
  • The most important elements of Internet are e-mail, online discussion capabilities and the World Wide Web, with the WWW being the most important.
  • People now have access to higher education without having to travel great distances.
  • The WWW Has:
    • A large library of knowledge.
    • A centre for the exchange of entertainment and cultural information.
    • Online shopping.
    • Banking centers.
    • Centers for personal expression, like blogs where people and organizations publish everything from personal diaries to political commentary.
• Developments in Television
  • Canadians had very few TV stations to watch before the 1980s.
  • Cable and satellite TV companies traditionally used analog transmission, but many are now using digital transmission.
  • Digital transmission gives higher quality pictures and sound, and is much more efficient.
  • One analog channel is equal to 8 digital channels.
• Convergent Technologies
  • Distinctions among various communication technologies are becoming blurred.
  • Companies want to deliver telephone, radio, tv and internet services.
  • For example, newspapers and magazines are becoming available online.
  • Interactive TVs are being used to access the Internet, such as Netlfix, playing games, online shopping, voting, and telebanking.

Chapter 32: Canada ans the World Community

• Increase in international connections between Canada and the world due to:
  • More people are traveling more places.
  • People are communicating by phone and internet.
  • International trade grows every year, so economies of countries become closely linked.
  • People share common cultures.
  • People want to escape natural hazards, wars, and terrorism.
• Grouping Countries
  • The most frequently used method of grouping countries is comparing their social and economic development.
  • There are 3 groups: developed, newly industrializing, and developing.
  • Countries are grouped based on several criteria:
    • Life Expectancy
      • An indicator of development of a country’s healthcare and social system.
      • Canada has one of the highest life expectancies.
    • Wealth
      • GDP per capita is used to measure a country’s wealth.
      • It measures the total value of goods and services a country produces in a year on a per person basis.
      • In developing countries, basic resources may not be available to people.
      • In developed countries, new products are constantly created for people to use.
    • Natural Increase Rate
      • As a country develops, the natural increase rate decreases.
      • In developed countries, women have control over how many children they will have, with things like contraceptives.
      • Countries with pension systems and effective health care don’t feel the need to have large families to support them in their old age.
    • Food Supply
      • People in tropical countries need less food energy than those in colder climates.
      • For example, Canada has a daily requirement far higher than Indonesia.
      • We measure food supply by examining how many people in a country are undernourished (do not have enough to eat based on country’s required food energy).
    • Education Level
      • The best way to advance social and economic development is to improve education.
      • It measures the literacy rate.
    • Healthcare
      • In developed countries, we can expect to recover from minor diseases.
      • In developing countries, thousands of children die from minor illnesses.
  • Three Levels of Development
    • Developed Countries
      • Developed countries are at the highest level of social and economic development.
      • They have the highest standard of living.
      • Their economies are based increasingly on service sector.
      • Manufacturing is a less important economic activity today than it was in the past.
      • 20% of the world’s people live in developed countries.
      • Developed countries use most of the world’s resources and produce most of it’s pollution.
      • In developing countries, thousands of children die from minor illnesses.
    • Developing Countries
      • Developing countries have the lowest level of social and economic growth.
      • Their economies are dominated by primary industries, mostly agriculture.
      • The majority of farmers consume what they produce.
      • New development is focused on manufacturing.
      • The service sector is poorly developed, as most people don’t have enough to spend on services.
      • The citizens earn little income.
      • Citizens do not pay taxes and the government is unable to provide money for education, healthcare, or economic development.
    • Newly Industrializing Countries
      • Some countries are moving from 'developing' to this category.
      • In these countries, manufacturing industries have been established.
      • As the industrial base grows, the service industry will also increase.
      • The standard of living is improved, but the transition is a long process.
      • Some examples include Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
      • There is an enormous economic growth rate.
• Limitations of Grouping Countries
  1. How do we decide what 'progress' and 'development' really are? High GDP may not necessarily mean high quality of life.
  2. Not everything is reflected in GDP statistics. In some countries, most people grow their own food, but it wasn’t sold so it isn’t reflected in statistics.
  3. There are only three groups, but each group contains countries that are very different from each other.
  4. This approach assumes that a country’s level of social and economic development is equal throughout the population. Some people are billionaires and some live on the street.
  5. Not all countries fit within the groups. Some have higher social development than economic development, like former Soviet countries.
  6. This only shows a snapshot of the situation at a particular time. They do not reflect the rapid changes that may be happening.

Chapter 33: Canada's International Relationships

• Canada and the United Nations
  • The UN was founded to promote world peace and to help developing countries.
  • Canada was one of the founding members of the UN.
  • Since there were many political differences among the members, it was hard to solve international crises.
  • The activities of the UN go beyond political and military conflicts.
  • International Civil Aviation Organization (in Montreal) is responsible for air traffic control and air flight security standards.
  • The UN is the world’s peacekeeper.
• Foreign Aid
  • Target for foreign aid: 0.7% of country’s gross national income goes to support for poor countries.
  • Much of Canada’s foreign aid is managed by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA).
  • The CIDA has 4 principals in it’s operation:
    • Deal with poverty first.
    • Help people help themselves.
    • Promote development.
    • Build partnerships.
  • Official development assistance (ODA) is government-provided foreign aid.
  • Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are charities, such as Red Cross or Free the Children.
• Canada's Economic Links
  • International relationships are more important as we move into increased globalization.
  • Globalization: Borders between countries are becoming less important as the world operates increasingly as one unit.
  • In the past, companies operated primarily in one country. Now, some multinational corporations (MNCs)—like Disney, Microsoft, and Toyota—operate across the world.
  • Economic globalization has advantages and disadvantages for Canada.
  • If an MNC or international business feels that Canada has competitive advantage (cheap to operate), it will expand there. This creates jobs, and grows the economy.
  • However, if an international business decides that other countries have an advantage, it will move jobs out of Canada.
  • Many manufacturing jobs have gone to China and India because of their cheap labour.
• Canada's Cultural Links
  • Globalization is important in the cultural field.
  • The internet and TV allow people to be exposed to other cultures.
  • Some people across the world may be exposed to our culture.
  • However, some people refer to this as Americanization because the US is the source of most of the world’s entertainment.
  • Some areas are fine with Americanization, but some strongly oppose it.

Chapter 34: Foreign Trade

• When the value of exports exceeds the value of imports, a trade surplus exists.
• If it is the other way around, we have a trade deficit.
• Analyzing Canada's Trade
  • Our trade with the US far exceeds our total trade with other countries.
  • Our imports fall into 4 categories: high-tech products, motor vehicle parts, low-cost goods, and goods produced only in warmer climates (like bananas).
  • Most exports fall into 3 categories: products based on our natural resources (like natural gas), motor vehicles, and specialized manufactured goods.
• Importance of Exports: Why do we export?
  • To pay for the things we import.
  • To keep our economy healthy by creating jobs.
  • To lower the prices of Canadian goods for Canadians.
• Trade in Services
  • There is a significant deficit in trade in services.
  • The largest part of deficit comes from travel and transportation.
  • More Canadians travel to other countries than people who travel to Canada.
  • The amount of money the average Canadian spends in another country is greater than the amount spent by the average visitor to Canada.
  • Another cause of deficit is the import of business services, for example Canadian TV channel shows American shows, or an American ad for Pepsi in a Canadian magazine.
• Free Trade vs Protectionism: Key Terms
  • Tariff: Tax on an import. It makes it more costly to buy foreign goods. This seriously affect trade because it keeps Canadian products out of other countries.
  • Protectionism: A government’s policy of having tariffs and rules that limit imports.
  • Free Trade: A government policy that eliminates tariffs and other laws designed to restrict trade.
• World Trade Organization (WTO)
  • After World War II, major trading countries realized they had to avoid trade protectionism that caused the Great Depression.
  • General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): Agreed on set of rules that governed and encouraged trade.
  • Free Trade: A government policy that eliminates tariffs and other laws designed to restrict trade.
  • The WTO was designed to resolve disputes under the rules of GATT, but the WTO process is very slow.
• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
  • Canada has pursued free trade directly with the US.
  • NAFTA expanded to include Mexico.
• Future of Canadian Trade
  • Can we maintain our traditional markets? Most of our exports rely on natural resources but there is a lot of competition.
  • Can we export more manufactured goods? Can we develop new products to create new markets?
  • Can we increase our export of services? Can we increase production of movies, TV, and music, and can our airlines can expand their international service?
  • Should/can we decrease our trade reliance on the US? We are easily harmed by downfalls in American economy.
  • Can we compete efficiently within NAFTA and beyond? Huge American companies have enormous economic power and Mexico has lower labour costs.

Chapter 35: Our Cultural Relations with the United States

• Culture is what makes our nation unique.
• In the broad sense, culture includes all the characteristics of a way of life, like language, religion, values, behaviour, etc.
• In the narrow sense, culture includes only the arts, media, and entertainment.
• Travel between USA and Canada is a routine because of their proximity.
• Many Canadians have relatives and friends who live in the United States.
• Vast selections of American television programs and news are offered in Canada.
• The majority of movies shown in our theaters come from American studios such as Universal, Paramount, and Disney.
• Many popular books and magazines in Canada are published in United States.
• American culture has enormous influence on Canadian culture.
• Should we protect our Canadian culture?

Chapter 36: Water

• Wetlands: Swamp, marsh and bog—places where the water table is at ground level.
• Water Table: Also known as the saturated zone, where all pores in the soil at that level are filled with water, and the soil pore spaces above the water table are filled with air.
• Saturated Zone: The area where the air crevices in the soil, sand and gravel are filled with water. The top of the zone is called the water table.
• Tributary: Small stream or river that joins to a larger stream or river or body of water.
• Drainage Basin: Area drained by a river and its tributaries. Drainage basins are separated from one another by an area of higher land called a watershed.
• Discharge Rate: The amount of water that flows through a drainage basin. The rate can vary greatly seasonally from weather conditions.
• The most common use of water daily is toilet flushing, followed by washing clothes, showers and faucets.
• Rainwater makes up 70% of Canada’s precipitation, while snow makes up 30%.
• The average Canadian uses 330L a day for personal use.
• If you add water use for economic activities like agriculture, mining, manufacturing, electrical power generation, municipal use, and cooling, the water used per Canadian rises to 4500L a day.
• Hydrologic Cycle: The constant circulation of Earth’s water evaporating and precipitating.
  • Water evaporates from land, rivers, lakes, and oceans. As moisture rises it expands, cools, condenses, and becomes water vapour in the atmosphere, which form clouds.
  • Precipitation such as rain, snow, sleet, and hail falls from the clouds to Earth. The rainwater runs off quickly into rivers, lakes, but the snow stays on the ground longer. Water that runs off the land through rivers and lakes into oceans called runoff.
  • Some runoff soaks deep into Earth through soil, sand, gravel, or porous rock, called groundwater. Plants soak groundwater close to the surface with their roots, and return some of it to the atmosphere via transpiration.
• Canada's Water Resources
  • Lakes and Wetlands
    • Lakes, rivers, and wetlands cover 20% of Canada’s area.
    • Ice sheets during glacial periods gouged out basins that are Canada’s lakes.
    • Rivers, groundwater springs, precipitation and runoff from rain. and melting snow feed the lakes.
    • Lakes store water but in return to water being added, lakes release water through rivers that flow out of them, maintaining continual river flow.
    • Most of the water in large lakes was from the glaciers melting, dubbed "fossil water".
    • Wetlands are places saturated with water. They cover 14% of Canada’s area, and provide habitats for insects, fish, reptiles, birds, mammals.
  • Rivers and Drainage Basins
    • Canada’s water drains to the Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Hudson Bay, and the Gulf of Mexico.
    • Seasonal changes in discharge can cause two major problems: Flooding during wet seasons, and lack of water during dry seasons.
    • Engineers often build a dam across a river to solve this. Water flowing downstream is stored in a reservoir behind the dam, which reduces flood potential.
    • 'Drawdown' of a reservoir is when natural flow is low and stored water is gradually released for hydroelectrical production, agriculture, recreation and fish habitats.
    • Canada is one of the world’s major dam-building countries.
  • Groundwater
    • Advantages Over Surface Water
      • It's more reliable, as groundwater supplies fluctuate less from seasons.
      • Soil and rock deep underground filter out impurities as the water flows, which means that groundwater doesn’t need to be as extensively treated.
    • Disadvantages
      • Groundwater can have an unpleasant taste from calcium, magnesium and iron dissolved from rock into the water. These minerals can also make groundwater hard (water with high mineral content), and can prevent lather from soap and shampoo properly forming.
      • Groundwater can be contaminated by farm runoff.
    • Groundwater must be protected. Removing too much groundwater in large urban areas, clearing land and draining swamps all lower the water table.
    • Lower water tables cause wells to dry and wetlands to disappear.
• Water Uses
  • Instream Use: Water used without removing it from lakes or river. Uses of instream use include transportation, hydroelectric power generation, waste disposal, fisheries, and recreation.
  • Withdrawal Use: Removes water from the water body. Uses include thermal power generation, and manufacturing, municipal, agricultural and mining activities.
  • Withdrawal use usually consumes some water, returning less to the environment then is taken out. Irrigation and livestock watering returns almost no water because water not consumed evaporates.
• Future Canadian Needs
  • Demand for water in the future will increase with population growth and industries expanding.
  • To obtain more needed water, we could:
    • Stop polluting lakes and rivers so that the water from there can be used.
    • Protect the wetlands.
    • Divert rivers in northern Canada to consumers in southern Canada and the US.
    • Conserve and manage water in a sustainable manner.
• Water Issues
  • Pollution
    1. Physical
       • Physical Pollution is the least harmful but the most obvious.
       • It includes things like floating garbage, old tires, paper litter, bottles and cans.
       • It can be easily spotted, making cleanup and even prevention relatively simple.
    2. Biological
       • Biological pollution is bade up of bacteria and viruses that enter lakes and rivers from various sources.
       • Sewage from cities and towns the largest source of biological contamination.
       • While most sewage is treated, not all treatment is adequate.
       • Around 20% of Canadian cities put raw untreated sewage into lakes and rivers.
       • The most serious incident was in Walkerton, Ontario, in 2000
         • Two factors killed 7 people and made 2000 ill.
           1. A large cattle herd grazed near town’s wells, and the groundwater feeding the well got contaminated with E. coli from the animal manure.
           2. The water purification system was improperly run, so the E. coli bacteria wasn’t eliminated.
    3. Chemical
       • Chemical pollution is the most dangerous form of water pollution as it is usually colourless, odourless, and tasteless.
       • Water bodies containing these dangerous chemicals is drinking water source for millions of people.
       • Two important chemical pollution sources are pesticides and herbicides.
         • The chemicals wash from farmer fields to rivers and lakes where they infiltrate the food chain.
         • People eating fish ingest these chemicals, which build up in the body over the years and can cause diseases.
       • Human waste, chemical fertilizers and animal manure contain nitrogen, potash, phosphorus, which act as fertilizers for weeds and algae to grow rapidly.
       • When these plants die, the decaying process uses large amounts of oxygen.
       • The decrease in oxygen levels kills fish and other aquatic animals.
       • Some industries have been pumping toxic chemicals into our water for years.
       • The Great Lakes have been referred to by scientist as a "chemical soup" with over 360 detected chemicals in the water. However, government studies show a decline in levels of many contaminants in the Great Lakes, helped by restrictions on lead, mercury, dioxin, many pesticides and PCBs (PolyChlorinated Biphenyls).
       • Groundwater can also be contaminated, from things like gasoline from storage leaks, toxic leaks from landfill sites, and leaks of industrial chemicals from manufacturing sites.
       • Groundwater can spread chemicals far from the original dump or spill, making it very difficult or impossible to remove groundwater contamination.
       • There are two major problems in trying to rid water of toxic chemicals:
         • We don’t know how to stop chemicals from getting into water bodies. Chemicals seep in from contaminated underground water, and people accidentally spill or dump them illegally.
         • We don’t have the technology to remove chemicals from the water. Most water treatment plants only treat biological pollution, though some remove phosphates.
  • Loss of Wetlands
    • Wetlands act as storage for floodwaters, and act as an important groundwater source, also providing food and shelter for wildlife, and are valuable for scientific studies, hunting waterfowl and trapping.
    • Wetland vegetation improves water quality by filtering out pollutants.
    • Agriculture and housing has replaced over 70% of southern Ontario’s wetlands.
    • As wetlands disappear, groundwater levels fall, and animal habitats vanish.
• Water Diversion
  • To help solve water shortages in regions water is diverted from one drainage basin to another.
  • Water in these short-distance diversions are mainly used for hydroelectric power generating stations.
  • Large-scale water diverting has potential for environmental damage, negative impact to Aboriginals, high costs, and a loss of Canada’s control over its own water.
• Sustainable Development
  • Water in Canada hasn’t been well preserved because it is plentiful and relatively cheap.
  • Canadians pay less than half of what Europeans pay for municipal water.
  • We need to evaluate our lifestyle and sustain our freshwater resources for future generations.

Chapter 37: Global Warming

• Global Warming: The rise of the world’s temperature.
• GHGs: Greenhouse gases.
• EF: Ecological footprint.
• Greenhouse Effect: Absorption of heat energy by GHGs and reradiation into the atmosphere.
• Rio Treaty: A 1992 treaty, signed by over 160 countries, who by signing agreed to a target of reducing GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2000.
• Kyoto Protocol: A 1997 treaty, signed by 180 countries and coming into effect in 2005, designed to limit the impact of global warming. Developed countries agreed to reduce GHGs by 5.2% below 1990 levels by sometime between 2008 and 2012. Unlike the Rio treaty, it is legally binding.
• The hottest years have occurred in recent decades.
• Why Climate Change Matters
  • Until 10,000 years ago, continental glaciers covered most of Canada because the average global temperature dropped 4°C.
  • Earlier global warming event shaped an important event in Canadian human geography: around year 1000 the Vikings built settlements in Greenland and L’Anse aux Meadows, northern Newfoundland, which they could settle on due to warmer than normal temperatures.
  • Vikings abandoned Greenland and Newfoundland in the 1400s because average temperatures had fallen.
  • Climate change affects demography.
• Life in a Greenhouse
  • The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, water vapour, and halocarbons.
    • Halocarbon: Chemical compound composed of carbon and one or more halogens (bromine, chlorine, fluorine, iodine).
    • All the gases except halocarbons occur naturally in the atmosphere.
    • Burning of fossil fuels creates carbon dioxide, a major source in the increase in GHGs.
• Carbon Cycle: The movement of carbon through plants, animals, water, soil, air, and rock.
  • Phytoplankton: Microscopic aquatic plants found in plankton.
  • Zooplankton: Microscopic aquatic animals found in plankton.
  • Carbon removed from the atmosphere and stored for a period of time is a carbon sink. An example would be carbon getting absorbed by the ocean and becoming part of phytoplankton via photosynthesis. Both the ocean and the phytoplankton are carbon sinks because they store carbon for a period of time.
  • Carbon being added to the atmosphere is a carbon source. Burning fossil fuels and other organic matter, or the weathering of limestone, both which release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, are carbon sources.
  • Carbon being tied up for a very long time is called carbon fixation. An example is a carbon dioxide molecule becoming part of a zooplankton that dies, falls to the bottom of a shallow sea, and becomes part of a crude oil deposit. The carbon will be recycled into the atmosphere when the oil is recovered, refined and burned.
  • The greenhouse effect has stayed relatively stable without human interaction.
  • Humans releasing lots of fixed carbon that hasn’t been in the atmosphere for hundred of millions of years (like burning gasoline) increases the carbon dioxide in the air, accelerating the greenhouse effect.
  • From 1888 to 2005, the world population went from 1.6 billion to 6.5 billion, carbon dioxide escapes as fossil fuels are burning for heating and cooking, and as forests are cut down for farming and urban growth.
  • The Western lifestyle uses a lot more carbon, due to large heated and cooled homes, a broad range of travel and recreation options, and individual ownership of cars.
  • Billions of people in China and India aspire to this lifestyle, which is even worse for the environment.
• Impact of Global Warming: Scientists predict average temperatures over the next 100 years will increase 1 degree to 5.8 degrees Celsius. The greatest increases in temperature will occur in polar areas.
• Potential Effects on the World
  • Melting of the polar ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland would increase world’s sea levels by about meter. It would have an enormous impact on those living in low-lying coastal regions, such as Bangladesh, with more than 120 million people, which already gets floods and would get many more floods that would be much worse. Canada would be less affected because it doesn’t have a lot of low-lying coastal areas.
  • The world’s total precipitation would increase from higher temperatures, leading to more evaporation from the oceans. Precipitation would increase unevenly however, with wet areas getting more rainfall and dry areas getting less. Wet places would flood and dry places would get even more severe drought, especially at risk is southern Alberta and Saskatchewan which are already dry.
  • Forests would die as regions become too dry for tree growth. Fewer and smaller forests would be very harmful and make global warming worse because trees act as carbon sinks. More forests would also appear, but in different places, causing towns to completely change their economic base.
  • Glaciers would shrink or disappear completely, such as Canada’s glaciers, which are already shrinking. The Athabasca Glacier in Alberta has receded 1.5 km since 1890.
  • Agricultural regions will shift northward, with some agricultural regions disappearing, but more farmland could become available with the warming up of areas of Canada currently too cold for agriculture.
  • Millions of climate refugees would exist, which are people abandoning their homes due to higher sea levels or harmful weather conditions.
  • If global warming becomes a long-term trend there will be dire consequences.
• Reducing Global Warming
  • Minimize Release of Fixed Carbon
    • An important way to cut back is expanding use of new types of fuel and alternative energy technologies, such as hydroelectric, solar or geothermal power.
    • Alternative power stations can replace those that burn coal, fuel, oil or natural gas, which all release large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
    • New fuel types, alternative energy sources and energy-efficient vehicles and appliances help prevent the release of more fixed carbon.
  • Protect and Expand Carbon Sinks
    • The most obvious carbon sinks to protect and expand are Earth’s forests, which people cut down for:
      • Wood for lumber or papermaking.
      • Clearing land for farming or urban growth.
      • Wood for fuel for cooking and heating.
    • We have to do 3 things to protect and expand forests:
      • Only cut a tree down if we absolutely need to.
      • Use cut down wood as efficiently as possible.
      • Plant as many trees in as many places as possible.
    • Oceans as carbon sinks:
      • Oceans and plant life, especially phytoplankton are the most important carbon sinks.
      • To protect oceans as carbon sinks, we must prevent ocean pollution, which damages phytoplankton.
      • With global warming, oceans warm up, which is less efficient.
      • Warmer water releases more carbon dioxide than colder water.
  • One-Tonne Challenge
    • The average Canadian releases 5 tonnes of GHGs into the atmosphere annually.
    • This challenge is to reduce our GHG emissions to 20%.

Chapter 38: Measuring Environmental Sustainability

• Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI): A measurement, devised by the World Economic Forum, of current and future levels of environmental sustainability in each of 146 countries.
• Sustainability: Approach to development that meets the needs of the present without negatively affecting the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
• Environmental Stresses: Those factors that combine to cause the environment to deteriorate, such as pollution, overfishing, and deforestation.
• Five components indicating ESI:
  1. Environmental Systems (ES)
  2. Reducing Environmental Stress (RS)
  3. Reducing Human Vulnerability (RHV)
  4. Social and Institutional Capacity (SIC)
  5. Global Stewardship (GS)

Chapter 39: Reducing the Size of Your Ecological Footprint

• Measuring and comparing the impacts of different impacts of different activities on the environment is difficult.
• Ecological Footprint: The ecological footprint of a person’s activities by determining the amount of biologically productive land and water required to support that person.
• Fair Earthshare: The measurement of productive land in the world divided by the number of people in the world. This is how much land each person is fairly entitled to.
• Canadians use more than their fair share of Earth’s resources.
• Load = Size of Population × Rate of Consumption.
• We use gross world product (GWP) to represent rate of consumption.
• Toward Sustainability
  • The carrying capacity of Earth has increased only slightly over the last two centuries.
  • The load has increased because the population and rate of consumption increased.
  • We are in ecological overshoot: the worldwide footprint exceeds the carrying capacity.
  • Earth can temporarily operate in overshoot by using up non-renewable resources.
  • Earth’s carrying capacity will decline as we use up non-renewable resources.
  • We need a measure of progress that combines both economics and ecology. The next step is to determine how we can live in a more ecologically responsible way in order to reduce our ecological footprint, while at the same time living happy and satisfied lives.